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Thermal Physics · Physics

Energy, temperature, and the direction of real processes.

Build a clear chain from temperature and heat transfer to gases, entropy, and the efficiency limits of engines.

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Thermal Physics

Choose a topic. Each page contains focused nano-lessons and ends with Practice & Exercises.

1
Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
Temperature, equilibrium, and how we measure thermal state.
  • Temperature as a measure of thermal state
  • Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
  • Thermal equilibrium and thermal contact
  • Thermometers and temperature scales
Start topic Equilibrium is the foundation.
2
Thermal Expansion
Materials expand with temperature—sometimes with large mechanical consequences.
  • Linear expansion
  • Area and volume expansion
  • Thermal stress and constrained expansion
  • Applications and real-world effects
Start topic Expansion meets mechanics.
3
Heat, Work, and Internal Energy
Separate energy transfer (heat/work) from stored energy (internal energy).
  • Heat as energy transfer
  • Work done by and on a system
  • Internal energy of a system
  • Distinction between heat and temperature
Start topic Define the system first.
4
Heat Transfer
Conduction, convection, and radiation—plus steady vs transient flow.
  • Conduction
  • Convection
  • Radiation
  • Steady-state vs transient heat flow
Start topic Mechanism depends on context.
5
Specific Heat and Calorimetry
Relate temperature change to energy exchange using heat capacity.
  • Specific heat capacity
  • Molar heat capacity
  • Calorimetry experiments
  • Energy balance in thermal systems
Start topic Energy accounting, carefully.
6
Ideal Gas Law
A simple equation of state linking pressure, volume, and temperature.
  • Pressure, volume, and temperature
  • Equation of state for an ideal gas
  • Applications to simple systems
  • Limitations of the ideal gas model
Start topic Know when “ideal” fails.
7
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Connect microscopic motion to macroscopic pressure and temperature.
  • Microscopic model of gases
  • Molecular speeds and distributions (conceptual)
  • Temperature and kinetic energy
  • Pressure from molecular motion
Start topic Microscopic explanation.
8
Work Done by a Gas
Use P–V diagrams to compute work as area under a curve.
  • Pressure–volume (P–V) diagrams
  • Quasi-static processes
  • Isobaric, isochoric, isothermal
  • Work as area under a curve
Start topic Geometry meets thermodynamics.
9
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy conservation for thermal systems.
  • Statement of the first law
  • Energy conservation in thermal systems
  • Applications to gases and cycles
  • Sign conventions
Start topic Track Q and W consistently.
10
Heat Capacities (Cp and Cv)
Compare heating at constant pressure vs constant volume.
  • Heat capacity at constant volume
  • Heat capacity at constant pressure
  • Relationship between Cp and Cv
  • Applications to ideal gases
Start topic Constraints change heat capacity.
11
Phase Changes and Latent Heat
Temperature can stay constant while energy flows during a phase change.
  • Phase transitions
  • Latent heat of fusion and vaporization
  • Heating curves
  • Energy exchange during phase changes
Start topic Energy without temperature change.
12
Entropy
A state variable that tracks irreversibility and the spread of energy.
  • Concept of entropy
  • Entropy change in reversible processes
  • Entropy and disorder (conceptual)
  • Entropy in isolated systems
Start topic State variable with directionality.
13
Second Law of Thermodynamics
The direction of natural processes and the arrow of time.
  • Statements of the second law
  • Direction of natural processes
  • Irreversibility
  • Entropy and the arrow of time
Start topic Not all energy is equally usable.
14
Heat Engines and Refrigerators
Devices that move energy between reservoirs and do work.
  • Heat engines
  • Refrigerators and heat pumps
  • Efficiency and coefficient of performance
  • Energy flow diagrams
Start topic Track reservoirs and work.
15
Carnot Cycle and Efficiency Limits
The ideal benchmark cycle that sets maximum possible efficiency.
  • Carnot engine
  • Reversible cycles
  • Maximum possible efficiency
  • Absolute temperature scale
Start topic Upper bound, not a design recipe.
Practice
Practice & Exercises
Mixed practice across thermal concepts, ideal gases, and thermodynamic laws.
  • Concept checks (equilibrium, heat vs temperature)
  • Drills (expansion, calorimetry, ideal gas)
  • P–V diagram and work computations
  • First/Second law and entropy prompts
  • Engines, COP, and Carnot-limit questions
Open practice Mix conceptual + computational.